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Studia historica Nitriensia.
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Publisher: Nitra : Vysoká škola pedagogická v Nitre, Fakulta humanitných vied, Katedra histórie a archeológie

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History


Book
Pod zástavou cisára a kráľa
Authors: ---
Year: 2009 Publisher: Bratislava, Slovakia : Historický ústav SAV,

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The presented monograph is an anthology of case-studies dealing with various aspects of military history of Slovakia starting with the antecedences of the 1848 revolution and continuing till the early beginnings of World War I. The texts are selected and arranged in chronological order. This mentioned period represents an era of crucial importance for the development of national consciousness of the Slovak nation. During that time, many revolutionary changes of social order took place in Hungarian Kingdom; decisive political struggles about the form of modernization were fought, the social structure and spiritual fundament changed radically, national contradictions among the nations living in the kingdom were more and more evident, the oppressive policy of Magyar elites towards other nations and nationalities strengthened. In consequence, the Slovak political representatives were pushed into a defensive position and they set as they primary goal the safeguarding of the Slovak national existence. The publication is divided into four parts: introduction, two basic chapters ordered chronologically and conclusion. In the first chapter titled Approaching the World War, I pay attention to the year of revolution, 1848, which represented a major turning point in the transition from feudalism to the capitalism and which deeply influenced the process of bourgeois transformation of the majority of European states. Further, it was for the first time in modern history of the Slovak nation, that an independent armed action of the Slovaks took place – the socalled September Uprising in 1848. In this chapter, the issues connected with the armed action of the Slovak volunteers in September 1848 serve as a background for a complex military historical analysis of that time. The Austro-Prussian War fought in 1866 that culminated in the defeat of Austrian army in the Battle of Königgrätz (Hradec Králové), brought a correction of great power ambitions of the Habsburg Empire, it further led to a revision of its foreign policy and cause inner political turbulences, leading to the Austro-Hungarian (Magyar) constitutional settlement in 1867. Last but not least, a reform of Austro-Hungarian army was initiated. In the second chapter, I consider the course of the mentioned war and its consequences, paying attention to the participation of Slovaks in the military formations of the Monarchy. The next three studies in this chapter seek to illustrate the system of resurrection of the Austro-Hungarian army and the organizational development of the infantry and cavalry units specifically considering the effects of those issues on Slovakia and the role of Slovaks in the frames of the Habsburg army and the units referred to. It is worth a mention that this is the first comprehensive attempt in Slovak historiography to reflect the above-mentioned issues. The studies are supplemented by tables and schemes and they are followed by an analysis of the nationality issue in the army – both the Habsburg and the Honvéd army – as well as the reactions of the Slovak policy to the mentioned questions in the last decades before World War I. Another chapter is dealing with the military and diplomatic background of events that followed after the Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo and which culminated in the World War I. The final study of this chapter is dealing with military plans of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in the eve of the outbreak of World War I, taking into account their connection with the military plans of the general staff of the German army. The second part of this book is titled Slovaks in the Great War and is subdivided into three chapter, each of them monitoring the first stage of military actions in the north-eastern front, where numerous Slovak soldiers incorporated to the V. battalion of Bratislava and VI. battalion of Košice took part. In the first chapter I focus on the prelude of the Austro-Hungarian military formations operations in the north-eastern front during August 1914, which later resulted in most determined fights in the initial phase of World War I. In the following study, I consider the most extensive military operation of the Austro-Hungarian army in the north-eastern front – the Battle of Kraśnik. My last study is dealing with the Battle of Komarów, in the Russian literature better known as the Battle of Tomaszów. In both battles, many soldiers coming from Slovakia lost their lives. In addition to a detailed description of the course of these battles and the whole military situation, I pay attention to some controversial decisions taken by the high command of the Austro-Hungarian army, resulting from frictions and discrepancies between the German and Austro-Hungarian military command. These decisions caused setbacks of particular military operations. World War I and its consequences changed the political map of Europe and brought a dramatic change in the balance of power. The multinational Habsburg monarchy, which long before the outbreak of the Great War wasn’t able to respond and satisfy the demands (political, lingual, cultural etc.) of oppressed nations, ceased to exist. On its ruins, new state raised. By the establishment of the Czecho-Slovak state on democratic principles, Slovakia and the Slovaks entered a new historical era.


Book
Kapitula pri Dóme sv. Martina : intelektuálne centrum Bratislavy v 15. storočí
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Year: 2011 Publisher: Bratislava, Slovakia : Historický ústav SAV,

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Eine der besten Charakteristiken des mittelalterlichen Kapitels ist die prägnante Formulation von Peter Moraw Statt der Begegnung von Kirche und Welt. Seine treff ende Äußerung gilt völlig ebenso für das Pressburger Kapitel. Das Pressburger Kapitel bei Pressburger St. Martin´s Dom war ein der wichtigsten Kirchen- und Bildungszentren im mittelalterlichen ungarischen Königreich. Zum Kapitel gehörte eine dem Kanoniker-Scholastiker unterstehende Schule und eine eigene Bibliothek. Die Mitglieder des Kapitels – Pröbste und Kanoniker, spielten hervorragende Rolle bei der Verwaltung des Königreichs. Ihre Erfahrungen und Fachkenntnisse erwarben sie dank ihrer Universitätsbildung und Kanzleipraxis in erzbischöfl ichen bzw. päpstlichen Diensten. Sie fungierten nicht nur als Vermittlungspersonen bei Eheschließungen oder Friedensverhandlungen, sondern sich auch als Hofärtzte um die Gesundheit und Verpfl egung des Herrschers kümmerten. Der König belohnte seine gebildeten Diener oft mit einem Kirchenamt oder Benefi zium. Die persönliche Besetzung des Kapitels sowie auch dessen Prosperität hing hauptsächlich von dem über das Patronatrecht verfügenden Herrscher ab. Wenn sich in den Regierungsjahren Sigismunds von Luxemburg im Pressburger Kapitel eher die für den persönlichen Bedarf beim Herrscher zuständigen Dienstleute (Geheimkanzler und Diplomat Johann von Aussig an der Elbe, Reichsvizekanzler Johann von Gran, Schreiber Michael von Mailberg, Ärtzte Siegfrid Degenberg, Johann Halbhauer von Hammelburg u. a.) konzentrierten, während der Existenz der Universität Istropolitana waren es die Absolventen der „höheren“ Fakultäten (Theologie und kanonisches Recht), welche an der Universität Istropolitana ihre Kenntnise in der Praxis anbringen konnten. Ein der wichtigen Gründe für die Präsenz der böhmischen Geistlichen im ungarischen Königreich in der ersten Hälfte des XV. Jh. waren die hussitischen Wirren in ihrem Heimatland. In den Diensten von Sigismund fanden sie im Pressburger Kapitel ein sicheres Zufl uchtsort. Ihre Wirkung, dank deren im Kapitel neue Einfl üße vor allem der devotio moderna auftauchten, wird sicher auch in der Zukunft zum Gegenstand weiterer zu der vorliegenden Arbeit ergänzenden Forschungen. Anfänglich war das auf dem Pressburger Burghügel residierende Kapitel eine zum liturgischen Dienst und Diözeseverwaltung berufene Priesterversammlung. Als das Kapitel im XIII. Jh. in die Stadt zum St. Martins Dom umsiedelte, wurde es zum bedeutenden intellektuellen und kulturellen Zentrum. Selbstverständlich war das Kapitel an der Entstehung und Wirkung der damals einzigen Universität im ungarischen Königreich beteiligt. Auch wenn sich die Bezeichnung Academia Istropolitana während der Zeit ihres wahrscheinlichen Bestehens 1465 – 1489 in den zeitgenössischen Quellen nicht fi ndet (man begegnet dem Namen erst seit den 40-er Jahren des XVI. Jh.), ist die Benennung Academia Istropolitana in der Literatur üblich geworden. Zum Unterschied von der Universität waren die Akademien des 15. Jh. lockere, eher private Institutionen ohne Uni versitätsrechte und Privilegien. Aus diesen Gründen bevorzugen wir in der vorliegenden Arbeit den Begriff Universität Istropolitana. Mit der Organisierung der Universität wurde außerdem humanistisch orientierten Kanzler, dem Graner Erzbischof Johann Vitez, auch der Vizekanzler der Universität und Probst des Pressburger Kapitels Georg Peltel aus Schönberg († 1486) beauftragt. Die überlieferten Dokumente bezeugen von seinem aktiven und tatkräftigen Leben: nach dem Bakkalaureus-Abschluß an der Fakultät der Freien Künste der Wiener Universität war er als Kanzler und Rat am Hof des Königs Ladislaus Posthumus und des Kaisers Friedrich III. tätig. Seit den 70-er Jahren des XV. Jh. vertrat er die Interesse des Königs Matthias Corvinus, er nahm an zahlreichen diplomatischen Missionen teil. Unter anderem machte er sich um die Versöhnung von König Matthias mit Kaiser Friedrich III. verdient, ebenso beteiligte sich 1463 an der erfolgreichen Rückgabe der Heiligen Stephanskrone nach Ungarn. Während seines römischen Aufenthaltes (wo er wahrscheinlich das kanonische Recht studierte), wurde er zum apostolischen Protonotarius ernannt. Die Blüte der humanistischen Lehre in der Kurie, seine Erfahrungen auf den Höfen in Wien und Ofen – alles das hat in Schönberg Spuren hinterlassen und sicher ihn auch bei der Konstituierung der Universität Istropolitana in Pressburg beeinfl ußt. Nach der Meinung der ungarischen Historikerin A. Ritoók-Szalay konnte das Plan der Gründung der Universität bereits beim Treff en von Kardinal Bessarion mit Erzbischof Johann Vitez in Wien 1460 – 1461 erarbeitet werden. Ein der Hauptziele dabei war die Hoff nung zur baldigen Wiedervereinigung der griechisch-orthodoxen und römischkatholischen Kirche. Trotz diesen großgelegten Pläne war die Realität viel prosaischer – die Universität Istropolitana gehörte eher zu den regionalen Universitäten. Sehr wahrscheinlich dienten die in der Kapitelbibliothek erhaltenen Statute der Bologner Universität aus dem 14. Jh. als Vorlage für die Verfassung der Istropolitana-Statuten, genauso wie es auch in Prag der Fall war. Aus dem Verglech mit anderen europäischen Universitäten in der Umgebung sowie auch aus der Analogie bei der Personalbelohnung mittels Benefi zien kommt vor, daß in dem Fall von Pressburger Universität eher als um das strikte Kopieren des Bologneser Musters mehr um ein gemischtes Verwaltungsmodell ging. Die Richtung der Universität wurde vom Anfang an durch ihre humanistisch orientierten Professoren bestimmt. Mehrere Vortragenden an der Fakultät der Freien Künste – Martin Bylica aus Olkusz, Regiomontanus, Johann Reibel aus Kupferberg und Johann aus Krakau (warscheinlich Johann Glogowita aus Krakau) trugen dank der Unterstü- tzung seitens des Graner Erzbishofs in den ersten fünf Jahren der Existenz der Universität wesentlich zur Entwicklung der astronomischen Studien bei. In den bei der Gelegentheit des 500. Jahresfeiers entstandenen Studien hat man auf einer Seite die Bedeutung der Juristischen Fakultät überschätzt (u. a. hatte man den Unterricht des kanonischen sowie auch römischen Rechtes vorausgesetzt), auf der anderen Seite wurde gerade die Existenz dieser Fakultät in Zweifel gesetzt. Die Juristische Fakultät war ein legitimes Bestandteil der entstehenden Universität. Auf ihre Existenz deuten mehrere Hinweise: in der Zeit wurden die Universitäten üblicherweise mit allen 4 Fakul täten gegründet; auch die 18 Bänder der juristischen Traktate (d. h. Standardwerke zum Unterrircht des kanonischen Rechtes) sind zu erwähnen. Diese Werke gehörten zum Bestand der Bibliothek von Gotsleichnams-Bruderschaft (nach dem aus dem Jahre 1501 erhaltenen Inventar), welche zuvor von der Universität Istropolitana benützt wurde. Es ist schließlich möglich, daß sich um ursprünglich private Bibliothek des Probst Georg aus Schönberg handelt. Wir haben ihn nämlich als Besitzer von zwei derzeitig in der Salzburger Universitätsbibliothek bewahrten Erstdrucken aus der Gotsleichnams-Bruderschaft Bibliothek identifi ziert. Als Professore der Juristischen Fakultät sind auch mehrere Rechtsgelehrten – Bakkalaureus des kanonischen Rechtes Andreas aus der Raaber Diözese, Magister Valentinus aus Veresmart in Graner Diözese, Erzdiakon Paulus aus Wieselburg (ung. Moson) und Magister Franz Ethe, Pfarrer aus ungarischem Kéthely – der „nunc in universitate Posoniensis constitutis“ zu bezeichnen. Das Studium der Jurisprudenz in Pressburg erfolgte warscheinlich, ähnlich wie in Prag, unter der Aufsicht des Kapitels, der kirchlichen Verwaltung und erzbishöfl ichen Gerichtswesens. Diese vielversprechende Entwicklung der Universität wurde aber durch die Politik vereitelt. Nach der Entdeckung der Verschwörung gegen Matthias Corvinus 1471 fi el der Kanzler Vitez in die Ungnade und ein Jahr danach er verstarb. Er war nämlich mit der auf die Eroberung von Böhmen konzentrierte und die türkische Gefahr venachlässigende Politik des Königs nicht einverstanden. Die Universität wurde in der Folge von den zu seinem Umkreis gehörenden Professoren (M. Galeotto, J. Gattus, Regiomontanus und M. Bylica) verlassen. Die Universität Istropolitana geriet allmählich unter den Einfl uss der eher trazionalistich als humanistisch orientierten Wiener Universität. Die Universitätsverwaltung überging nach 1472 an den Vizekanzler Georg aus Schönberg. Der Vizekanzler versuchte, aus den üblichen 14 kirchlichen Prebenden eine bestimmte Anzahl für die Bezahlung der Professoren zu sichern. Eine Parallele zur Verbindung des Kapitels mit der Universität, welche direkt die Istropolitana-Gründung beeinfl ußte, fi ndet sich am Beispiel der benachbarten Wiener Universität. Das Kapitel wurde zu einer Universitätsstift, wobei jedoch die Kapitel-Kanonikate nicht komplett für die Universitätsprofessoren vorbehalten waren, wie es in Prag oder in Heidelberg der Fall war. Die Professoren der Universität und zugleich die Kanoniker des Pressburger Kapitels wurden Landsleute des Vizekanzlers vorwiegend aus Niederösterreich, Absolventen der Teologischen und Juristischen Fakultät der Wiener Universität. Dabei sind der Lizenziat der Theologie und großer Kenner der griechischen Sprache Nicolaus Schricker von Hüttendorf, Lizenziat der Theologie Nicolaus Popp von Hüttendorf, Lizenziat der Theologie Georg Greiff enstein aus Krems, Bakkalaureus der Theologie Sigismund Obrecht aus dem niederösterreichischen Lengenfeld, Magister Wolfgangus Prechtel aus Hausleiten, Doktor des kanonischen Rechtes Erasmus von Regensburg, Bakkalaureus der Theologie und des kanonischen Rechtes Johannes Rauch aus der Regensburger Diözese u. a. Die Beispiele anderer Universitäten belehren, daß die Kirche in der Regel nicht die einzige bei der Beschaff ung von Geldmitteln und Belohnung der Professoren mitbezahlende Institution war. Einen enscheidenden Anteil bei solcher Finanzierung kam der königlichen Familie zu. Im Falle der Pressburger Universität war dies jedoch nicht der Fall. Trotz der Tatsache, daß sie zur Prestige- und Repräsentativsanstalt des ungarischen Königreichs gegenüber die Nachbarländern werden sollte, zog der König eher seine politischen Anliegen der Universität vor und hat die sie fi nanziell nicht unterstützt. So können wir uns aufgrund der fragmentarisch erhaltenen Zeugnisse über die Universität Istropolitana auch eine legitime Frage stellen: Wurde die Istropolitana nach dem Abschied der Professoren des Vitéz-Umkreises und Übergang unter die Verwaltung von Georg aus Schönberg nicht eher zu einer „Zweigstelle“ der Wiener Universität? Trotz intensiver Beteiligung der Kapitel-Mitglieder an den pädagogischen Aktivitäten oder in den königlichen Diensten bestand ihr Hauptbetätigungsfeld in ihren sakralen Aufgaben: Pastorale Fürsorge, Gottesdienste und Totenmessen, Prozessionen usw. Einige mit den königlichen Diensten beschäftigten Pröbste und Kanoniker hielten ihre Residenz außer des Kapitelsitzes, was sie durch die päpstlichen Dispense und Einsetzung der Vertreter (Vikare) wiedergutmachten. Zum Unterschied von ihnen, hielten sich die als Pfarrer, Dekan, Scholastiker oder Kustos wirkenden Kapitelmitglieder im Kapitelsitz, sie waren bei den Testamentabfassungen oder als Rechtsexperte in den städtischen Diensten tätig. Außer ihnen waren im St. Martinsdom zahlreiche Altaristen, Priester, Sängerchor – alle diese Personen ergänzten die zum Dom gehörende geistliche Gesellschaft. Die Bibliothek des Pressburger Kapitels stellt heutzutage den preisvollsten Handschriftenbestand auf dem Gebiet der Slowakei dar. Um die Rolle des Kapitels und seinen Beitrag zur Kultur- und Bildungsgeschichte in unserer Region ausgeglichen bewerten zu können, sind weitere Forschungen notwendig. Von besonderer Bedeutung ist, die Umstände und Identifi zierung der verlorengegangenen Kodexe in den slowakischen sowie ausländischen Archiven weiter zu erforschen. In diesem Zusammenhang haben wir festgestellt, daß eine Handschrift aus der Pressburger Kapitelsbibliothek mit kanonisch-rechtlichen Texten aus dem XIV. – XV. Jh. sich derzeitig in der Harvard University Library (USA) befi ndet, wo sie aller Wahrscheinlichkeit nach in der Zwischenkriegszeit geriet. Bei der Verfolgung der Schicksale der Pressburger Kapitelmitglieder wird uns nicht überraschen, daß ihr Hauptziel in der ersten Reihe die kirchliche Karriere war – sie garantierte nämlich sicheren gesellschaftlichen Aufstieg und gleichzeitig auch kanonische und bischöfl iche Prebenden. Mehrere von ihnen nützten dann ihre internationalen Erfahrungen und Kenntnisse auf dem Gebiet der Slowakei aus.

Keywords

Church history.


Periodical
Ars.
Authors: ---
Year: 1967 Publisher: Bratislava : Slovenská akadémia vied

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Keywords

Art --- History


Periodical
Forum historiae : časopis a portál pre históriu a príbuzné spoločenské vedy.
Author:
ISSN: 13376861 Year: 2007 Publisher: Bratislava : Historický ústav SAV,

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Book
Feodalizm v Udiel'noi Rusi : Izsli︠e︡dovanīe : S prilozhenīemʺ bīografīi i portreta avtora
Author:
Year: 1910 Publisher: S.-Peterburg : Tip. M.M. Stasi︠u︡levicha,

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Book
Slovensko a svet v 20. storočí : Kapitoly k 70. narodeninám Valeriána Bystrického
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Year: 2006 Publisher: Bratislava : Historický ústav SAV,

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The chapters of the 20th century history creating this book deal with the important moments from the history of modern Slovakia in the changing world. The authors – friends and disciples of PhDr. Valarián Bystrický, DrSc. – are presenting here the newest results of their research and its critical evaluation. What they all have in common with Valerián Bystrický is the conviction that the 20th century Slovakia kept the same developing rhythm as the rest of the world. They agree with his opinion that the Slovak history of this period has to be studied and interpreted from a global perspective. The detailed knowledge of internal changes in Slovakia following its separation from Hungary, of amalgamating the Czechs and Slovaks in the common Czechoslovak state with all its internal and international problems and with its Central European political, economical and cultural context, enables to understand also the contemporary shape of the Slovak Republic – a sovereign state and a member of the European Union. The 20th century world had been changing as well as the Slovak historiography that reflected those changes. And as it is shown in the first chapter of this book, the scientific achievements of Valerián Bystrický are important and integral part of it. They deal with international affairs between the two world wars, with the interwar problems of the Balkans and in the same time with the history of Slovakia. In not so distant period the regime pressure on a creative individuality was hardly bearable. Not every scientist was able to resist it in the same way even on the ground of one academic institution. But Valerián Bystrický succeeded to preserve the clean shield in clash with this period as an author of historical writings and after 1989 as a manager of science. In 1998 – 2006, being a director of the Institute of History of the SAS, he had helped to create the healthy conditions for a free scientific research, where no methods of one historical school would prevail over the others. He should be respected for that. This book intentionally begins with the chapter on demographic development of Bratislava. In the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries, protagonists of the Slovak national movement often regretted that Slovakia did not had a significantly Slovak, city-like national and administrative center. In 1919 it was Vavro Šrobár, the minister for Slovakia, who insisted on the Slovak character of Bratislava. Milan Zemko begins his chapter with the statement that the development of every capital of each state, the progressing of its social and national structure, indicates a lot about the development of the whole country. In the 20th century, Bratislava was officially the capital of an independent state only in 1939 – 1945 and then again from 1993. But already in 1919 it started the career of an informal political administrative, economical and step-by-step also cultural centre of Slovakia – a country with 3 million inhabitants that was part of a newborn Czechoslovak state. This new situation strengthened by internal and external political factors, had caused great changes in “the city upon Danube”, including the changes of its ethnical structure. And Milan Zemko concentrates mainly – using the statistics from the first half of the 20th century – on the transformation of the Bratislava multiethnic character and its gradual “Slovakization”. The following three chapters deal with the history of the Czechoslovak and Slovak political parties in interwar period. Natália Krajčovičová examines the history of the Slovak agrarian political movement – the formation of the Agrarian Party in Slovakia, its unification with the Czechoslovak agrarians and the following development of the party, which significantly influenced the Slovak and the Czechoslovak political scene until the turbulent year 1938. Jaroslava Roguľová focuses on the autonomist program of the Slovak National Party and its significant theoretical ideas and deals also with the standpoints of this party towards reforms of the political administration. The result of her analysis is the characteristic of the four periods of the Slovak National Party autonomist program from 1918 to 1938. In the chapter written by Alena Bartlová the Czechoslovak agrarianism crosses the borders of the republic. In the focus of it is the participation of Dr. Milan Hodža on the international cooperation of agrarian political parties in the Eastern-Central Europe in the 1920s and the first half of the 1930s. The text shows Hodža’s efforts to cooperate with the politicians from Polish and Bulgarian Agrarian Parties and also its limits: the agrarian politicians were not able to consider the broad spectrum of their societies and the crucial specific problems of other classes. After the World War I Europe hoped for everlasting peace, social justice, stability and prosperity. But this optimism of citizens failed. Instead of it there had risen fear of the countries, which were not satisfied by the peace treaties and wanted to revise them. Czechoslovakia tried to face it by building and strengthening its armed forces. Miloslav Čaplovič in his chapter writes about the specific and important theme – organization and activities of the Czechoslovak military intelligence service in 1919 – 1939. In another chapter Bohumila Ferenčuhová focuses on problems of regional and European security from the perspective of diplomacy. She examines the negotiations that had led to the treaty between Romania and France in 1926 and analyzes the role of this treaty in the Versailles peace treaties system. Even in the period of European pacifism, Central and South-Eastern Europe from the Adriatic to the Baltic had to consider interests, positions and the territorial claims of the two for this once returning powers – Germany and the U.S.S.R. Not long ago the objective analysis of the great power policy of Russia and the U.S.S.R. towards Central Europe and the Balkans was a theme that belonged to less frequently researched and almost taboo themes in the Soviet block historiography. Ľubica Harbuľová in her chapter brings a detailed analysis of contemporary results of the Russian historiography dealing with the Czechoslovak history, which are based upon the materials from the former inaccessible archival funds. The Munich of 1938 represents one of the key and dark moments in the Czechoslovak history. The chapter written by Jindřich Dejmek follows less known aspect of this problem. He analyses the permanent and persistent diplomatic activities of Dr. Edvard Beneš that led in 1942 to the declaration of the Munich Agreement for not valid. His success helped to restore the postwar Czechoslovakia in the borders from 1938 (without Sub-Carpathian Ruthenia). The part prepared by Ondrej Podelec deals with the Slovak Republic in 1939 – 1945. It is a thorough analysis of the trials in which the Slovak courts of justice tried in absence the members of political exile and the author examines their legislative background and judgment practices. Due to long lasting procedures of the tribunals some cases were not concluded till the decline of the state in 1945, as it was the trial with Štefan Osuský and co. This analysis also shows, that since autumn 1944 the Slovak judicature was not able to resist political pressure of the regime and the German occupation forces. The chapter written by Slavomír Michálek bridges the war and postwar periods from the perspective of the U. S. – Czechoslovak economic relations. Projects like lend – lease and UNRRA (United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration) were part of a specific U. S. help for the countries that had suffered under the German occupation and expansion. Among them was also Czechoslovakia. Her citizens understood very well that the massive UNRRA activities were an American project. Therefore the Czechoslovak communists played down its importance and trivialized its economic effect, because the help from the capitalist country did not fit to their schemes and political goals. After World War II, the limited parliamentary democracy was restored in Czechoslovakia. But this regime differed from the parliamentary system of the first Czechoslovak Republic. The so-called people’s democracy considered the Czechoslovak citizens (except German and Hungarian minorities) as a special kind of plurality and democracy. But it had not been an idea only of the communists who saw in it a transitional step towards their own regime. The democratic parts of domestic and exile resistance contributed to its birth, too. Michal Barnovský in his text compares Polish and Czechoslovak road to one party regime. The specifics and differences between them had not been so significant for establishing a communist regime, but they played an important role in the following development. The attempts to change the Stalinist regimes in Poland and Hungary in 1956 had many-sided influence on the neighboring countries. Dagmar Čierna-Lantayová in her chapter describes the rise of opposition moods among students and intellectuals in Slovakia. But in contrast to Hungary, the socio-political tension was not eruptive enough for mass protests. This was one of the causes why the support for the events in Hungary had been so minimal. Half-hearted attempts of the press to express other than official opinion, were played down prevented by “watchful” censorship. In December 1956, the Czechoslovak communist party officially condemned “the attempt of counter-revolutionary coup d’état in Hungary”. The communist control over the Slovak society had even deepened. Events in Central Europe in 1956 were overshadowed by a global clash of the great powers. Karol Sorby’s chapter shows that the failure of the British and French “Suez adventure” made it easier for USA to take over the leading role in the region. According to the Eisenhower doctrine “power vacuum” in the Middle East had to be filled in by the United States in order to stop the communist – especially Soviet – infiltration of this part of the world. But in the eyes of Arabic nationalists the Suez crisis destroyed the myth of Soviet threat to the security of the region. They viewed the Soviet Middle East policy as more sensitive towards their interests. Sorby analyzes and compares politics of different Arabic states after the formation of Eisenhower doctrine and evaluates its global consequences. For some independent Slovak intellectuals it was difficult to let themselves tie down by the communist regime. Jozef Leikert in his chapter deals with the case of journalist and writer Ladislav Mňačko, whose emigration to Israel in the late 1960s was an act of opposition to the anti-Israeli politics of Czechoslovakia. Through the interviews of Jozef Leikert with Ladislav Mňačko, various authors of Kultúrny život (journal Cultural Life) and members of the Union of Slovak writers we may be involved not only in the atmosphere of this period, but we will meet oppositionists and conformists among the Slovak intelligentsia, too. So-called normalization in 1970 – 1989 almost returned Slovakia to the stuffy atmosphere of the 1950s. That is why we decided to close this book not with the independent and proud attitude of Ladislav Mňačko, but we return back to the phenomenon typical for the whole period of the communist regime in Czechoslovakia. In the years 1948 – 1989 it was very important for communists to control churches, because they considered them potential opposition in Slovakia. Jan Pešek examines in his text the institutional instruments of this control: legislation, activities of the Slovak Office for Church Affairs as a highest state authority for regulation and control of churches (which actually did not change during the whole 40 years of the communist regime), church policy of the communist Party and the (mal-)practices of the State security towards churches. Despite protests from domestic and foreign Church authorities – especially RomanCatholic – the regime did not modify either the spirit or the letter of the so-called Church Acts from 1949. The fundamental change came only with the “velvet revolution” in 1989: the communist regime collapsed and the apparatus for the control of churches has gone to the history.


Book
Rok 1968 a ekonomická realita Slovenska
Authors: --- ---
Year: 2007 Publisher: Bratislava, Slovakia : Historický ústav SAV,

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The purpose of this work (book) shall not be an insight into the year 1968 in Slovakia by mapping in detail the development in this period in the economic area, as a certain static picture. The author’s attempt was rather to perceive the events in this year as the outcome of a long-term process, which was actually already determined by the results of WWII. Those results decided that the postwar Czechoslovakia shall belong to the Soviet sphere of influence. The events of February 1948 only confirmed this tendency. A change in the essential social spheres followed and it might be called its systematizm. Not only did the political system change, which was formed into a modern totalitarian form. In the economic area, there were substantial ownership changes and the state became the most significant owner of production means. Gradually, a management system was taken over, which copied the Soviet forms, and the social structure of the society changed almost completely. In Slovakia, the socialist industrialization of the country was happening after February in this connection, supported by the investment from national funds. The importance of industry was increasing; economic activity of the population was growing. The economic growth in the monitored decade in Slovakia was actually in such a state that it provided for advancing towards the level achieved in the Czech countries in relative indicators, but on the other hand, in some of the crucial indicators the absolute differences were growing – e.g. created national income per inhabitant. The problems in the economic development were pointed out by the Slovak economists in the long term and their criticism was also gradually adopted by Alexander Dubček. His critical appearance in September 1967 had actually become a prologue to the events which became known as the Czechoslovak Spring 1968. Naturally, the problems of economic development did not only exist in Slovakia, but on the national level as well, and the economic crisis from the first half of the 1960s began the Šik’s reform. This was gradually implemented but it had some negative effects on the Slovak side. In the course of 1968, all these problems were being solved dynamically, not only in the economic area. From the political point of view, there was an attempt to create „socialism with a human face“, but it was the development in 1968 that proved that the socialist system based on the totalitarian ideology was non-reformable. The following year was only a swan-song of the economic reform which was gradually denounced by the new regime representatives. For the following twenty years, the entire Czechoslovak economy was hereby denounced to stagnation and falling behind the developed western countries.


Periodical
Slovenská literatúra.
Authors: --- ---
Year: 1954 Publisher: Bratislava : Slovak Academic Press

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Periodical
Kritika & kontext.
Author:
Year: 1996 Publisher: Bratislava : Kritika & kontext

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